Arts

In general, art refers to the manifestations of human creativity through which people express themselves in dancing, music, song, painting, sculpture, pottery, cloth, story, verse, prose, drama, and comedy.

1. Art and Religion

Arts also take parts in religions. Many forms of art such as songs, sculpture, painting, clothing, and stories are inherited from generations which represent each religion. Take example of Islamic veil which is experimented by many woman in the world, or Buddhanese sculpture as a symbol of their gods.

2. The Change of Arts
Art is also changing from time to time. There are some forms of art that never change as a part of enculturation, but some form of arts are changing continually. Take example from music industry, which in the 70s are focusing on pop songs, but electro musics are emerging now.

Sources:

• Binusmaya Powerpoint Presentation: Human Diversities 2 (slides 30-42)

Religion

Baptism ritual in Catholic religion.

According to Wallace, religion is the belief and ritual concerned with supernatural beings, powers, and forces. As for E. B. Tylor, religion is defined as "the belief in spiritual beings". Religion also includes the worship of God, and also some sacred rituals that varies according to each beliefs. For example, in Indonesia, Christian people go to church every once a week to worship God and Islamic people do the prayer five times a day. There are also different rituals for occasions such as birth and weddings.

1. Animism

Animism is the belief and worship towards spiritual beings, that firstly arise within the primitive society. Animists believe that every object in this world (such as big trees and caves) have spirits in it must be respected for the sake of the spirits.

2. Mana and Taboo

Mana is defined as belief in immanent supernatural domain or life-force, potentially subject to human manipulation.
While taboo is a form of strong social restriction of specific words, objects, and action. A violation towards taboo can cause severe punishment and also social embarrassment, disgrace, and rough treatment from surroundings.

 3. Magic

Magic is a form of supernatural techniques intended to accomplish specific aim. Magic can be imitative (such as the use of voodoo dolls) or contagious (accomplished through contact). 

Islamic wedding ritual in Java

4. Rituals

Rituals in religions are performed in formal, sacred contexts. It conveys information about the culture of the participants. Rituals are socially inherited through generations (thus have a very strong philosophy) and necessarily implies social commitment. 

Sumber:

• Tylor, E.B. (1871) Primitive Culture: Researches Into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom. Vol. 1. London: John Murray; (p.424).
• kbbi.web.id
• Binusmaya Powerpoint Presentation: Human Diversities 2 (slides 1-30)
  

Sumber Gambar:

• http://febbyrachma.blogspot.com/2013/05/kebudayaan-ritual-adat-suku-jawa.html
•  katolisitas-indonesia.blogspot.com

Interview tentang Masalah Hukum dan Pendidikan di Indonesia

Masalah Pendidikan

Sumber 1: 

Etty Mardiyanti,

Kepala Sekolah Dasar Negeri

1. Bagaimana kesejahteraan dan kualitas guru di Indonesia? 

Kalau  kesejahteraan guru di Indonesia sebenarnya sudah sejahtera karena sudah mendapat gaji, tunjangan kinerja daerah  serta sertifikasi. Tetapi tidak untuk guru honor, guru honor cuma dapat honor dari sekolah paling banyak  1 juta plus tunjangan dari pemerintah 400 rb perbulan yg turunnya ga pasti. Tuk kualitas guru di Indonesia  memang masih kurang, karena banyak guru tidak mau belajar atau menyesuaikan diri dengan kemajuan zaman. Guru terlalu nyaman dengan keberadaannya sekarang jadi kurang inovasi. Tidak peduli dengan keadaan sekarang walaupun tidak semua guru. 

2.     Bagaimana sarana dan prasarana sekolah di Indonesia?  

Sekolah negeri di Indonesia mendapat dana operasional untuk membeli sarana dan prasarana sekolah dari pemerintah, tetapi tidak merata tiap sekolah, jadi ada yang dapat banyak ada juga yang tidak dapat. Tetapi dana operasional sekolah datangnya telat terus jadi ditalangin dulu sama kepala sekolah dan bendahara sekolah.

3.     Siapa calon presiden yang cocok mengatasi masalah pendidikan di Indonesia?

Menurut saya Prabowo, karena ada isu bahwa sertifikasi guru akan dihapuskan oleh Jokowi, kalau hal itu sampai dihapuskan, kasihan semua guru di Indonesia. 

Sumber 2, 3, dan 4:

Kiri: Abu Rizal Sidik, Mahasiswa

Tengah: Dicky Riawan, Mahasiswa

Kanan: Moh. Alfi Syahrin, Mahasiswa

1.     Menurut anda, pendidikan di Indonesia sekarang ini seperti apa? 

a.     Abu: masih banyak kekurangan terutama masalah waktu,para pelajar selalu difokuskan untuk belajar terus menerus.

b.     Dicky: layak dipertanyakan karena uang yang dikeluarkan tidak pernah sebanding dengan apa yang didapat.

c.     Alfi: biasa-biasa saja tapi terkadang kita terlalu banyak mendapatkan kewajiban daripada hak sebagai pelajar.

2.     Bagaimana kualitas pendidikan di Indonesia? 

a.  Abu: kualitasnya masih jauh dibawah rata-rata dibandingkan dengan negara tetangga.
b.  Dicky: menilik secara kualitas masih sangat buruk,karena kita sebagai pelajar hanya melakukan hal yang membosankan.

c.     Alfi: masih jauh dibawah standar dunia.

3.     Apa harapan untuk pendidikan di Indonesia?

a.     Abu: lebih baik aja sih terutama sarana dan prasarana.

b.     Dicky: waktu belajar di sekolah ada baiknya dikurangin,karena belajar dari pagi sampai sore sangat melelahkan.

c.     Alfi: masalah tenaga pendidikan bisa segera diperbaiki.

4.     Menurut anda, masalah utama dalam dunia pendidikan itu apa?

a.     Abu dan Alfi: kalo masalah sih banyak tapi yang paling mendasar adalah lamanya waktu belajar.

b.     Dicky: system yang berubahnya cepat menggangu cara belajar siswa.

5.     Solusi anda untuk pendidikan?

a.     Abu: perubahan yang menyeluruh terhadap elemen-elemen di dalam pendidikan.

b.     Dicky: lebih baik aja sih terutama pengaturan waktu.

c.   Alfi: tenaga pendidik yang bisa menyesuaikan kemampuan kualitas dan kuantitas siswa.

6.     Siapa Presiden yang cocok untuk mengatasi ini semua? 

a.     Abu: belom tau sih tapi kayanya Jokowi deh.

b.     Dicky: saya sih milih Abu Rizal Bakrie.

c.     Alfi: Jokowi bisa menangani ini semua, Insya Allah.

Sumber 5:

Cindy, Siswa SMA (interviwee menolak untuk difoto)

1. Bagaimana kualitas pendidikan di Indonesia?

Pendidikan di Indonesia sangat buruk karena UN kali ini soalnya sulit sekali dan berstandar internasional

2.     Bagaimana kualitas guru di indonesia?

Kualitas guru di Indonesia cukup baik, akan tetapi masih saja ada guru guru yang menjadikan segalanya menjadi uang

3.     Masalah utama pendidikan di indonesia menurut anda apa saja?

Masalahnya sangat banyak dari mulai sistem yang kurang baik hingga di lapanganya

4.     Apakah keinginan anda untuk pendidikan indonesia

Yang pasti lebih baik,dan jangan menjadikan murid - murid sebagai percobaaan setiap tahunya dengan mengganti ganti sistem pendidikan yang tidak ada perubahanya

5.   Solusi anda untuk pendidikan di Indonesia?

Solusinya bisa leih baik dengan sistem yang bagus

6. Presiden siapa yang cocok untuk mengatasi masalah ini?

Presiden Jokowi karena dia bisa tegas menyelesaikan masalah

Sumber 6:

Ratna Devianti, Pengacara Hukum di Indonesia

1. Bagaimana kualitas Hukum di Indonesia?

Hukum yang ada di indonesia sudah baik

2. Bagaimana kualitas hakim dan pengacara hukum di indonesia?

Kualitas hakim dan pengacara hukum di indonesia tidak semua baik

3. Masalah utama hukum di indonesia menurut anda apa saja?

Masalah utama hukum di indonesia adalah korupsi dan inkonsistensi

4. Apakah keinginan anda untuk hukum indonesia?

Keinginan saya untuk hukum indonesia adalah agar hukum indonesia menjadi lebih stabil

5. Solusi anda untuk Hukum di indonesia?

Solusi atas masalah hukum di indonesia adah dengan memperberat hukuman bagi pelaku kriminalitas

6. Presiden yang cocok untuk masalah di Indonesia?

Saya belum tahu presiden mana yang cocok untuk menangani masalah ini

Ethnicity

In this post the writer is going to discuss about ethnicity and its relation with race, the distinction of ethnicity, statuses in ethnic group, and the relation of it with assimilation.

An ethnic may define themselves as different because of their language, religion, geography, history, ancestry, or physical traits. Many people misinterpret ethnicity is the correct political term for race, whilst ethnicity is actually based on cultural traditions. Race, on the other hand, is mainly based on biological traits. Hence, when an ethnic group is assumed to have a biological basis, it is called a race.

Ethnic groups are formed around virtually the same features as cultures: common beliefs, values, customs, history, and the like. More about culture can be read in 'Culture' post in this blog.

Ethnicity and Status

Status refers to any position in a society, which can be filled by individual. In ethnicity, the role of status is also applied. There are two categories of statuses:

• Ascribed status is status into which people enter automatically without choice, usually at birth or through some other universal event in the life cycle. 
• Achieved status is status that people acquire through their own actions.

Chieftain of Asmat Tribe

See an example of Asmat tribe in Papua New Guinea, Indonesia. This tribe applies the “Big Men” status role of, in which they have the chieftain; the headman of the tribe. This position is never inherited, but rather achieved by surviving and winning competition within other chieftain candidates. The chieftain is expected to act as a negotiator with other tribes or foreign peers, and is also expected to give positive influences through his examples.

Within complex societies, ascribed status has the ability to describe large sub-groups: majority groups, minority groups, and races. It is differentiated by blood, or the inherited status given at birth. Differences in ascribed status are too commonly associated with differences in social-political power.

The definitive feature of a minority group is that its members systematically experience lesser income, authority, and power that other member of their society; a minority group is not necessarily a smaller population than other groups, bur it is rather the group that has minor power. Whilst the majority group, with what they own in reverse, has the capability to select higher position in economic and politic with the power they posses.

Although there is a status role that applies, ethnic groups are not formally, politically organized. Ethnic group lives in nations, and one nation commonly have more than one ethnic group (and the number is increasing).

Ethnicity and Assimilation

Assimilation in ethnicity occurs when a minority group adopts the patterns and norms of a more powerful culture, as when a migrant ethnic group conforms itself to its host culture.

Information gathered from many sources:

• Bina Nusantara Presentation "Human Diversities 1" slides 99-118 
• "Big Man (Anthropology) at  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_man_%28anthropology%29 (quoted at April 2nd 2014)

Image sources:

• www.bluekaffee.com

Culture

In this post the writer will talk about culture, the examples of it, and types of cultures.

From an anthropological perspective, culture designates the way of life of a certain people or group. Culture is reflected in all areas:

• Language
• Religion
• Sexual division of labor
• Marriage rules
• Cuisine
• Taboo rituals
• History
• Manners
• Arts
• Clothing 
• Style of music
• Medicine
• Sacred views
• Mourning ritual, etc. 

Below is the example of culture in Central Java.

  

Language	Javanese (Hanacaraka)
Dominant Religion	Kejawen
Marriage Rules	Arranged marriage, monogamy
Cuisine	Gudeg
Clothing	Kebaya
Arts	Wayang Golek
Medicine	Jamu
Government	Monarchy
Music Style	Gamelan
Housing Architecture	Joglo

Phenomenologits argue that people are formed by their culture. According to the nurture law, one’s individuality is shaped by its surroundings. In this case, phenomenologists see that the individuality of a person is shaped by the culture where one lives in. Take two tribes from Indonesia as an example; Java and Batak. Javanese people are commonly acknowledged as calming and caring individuals, whereas Batak people are recognized as stiff people and manage to shout often.

Cultural Learning

Ancient Egypt Cave Painting

To learn about culture is to learn about the accumulation of knowledge in that society. Culture is learnt through the system of enculturation; it is transmitted from generation to generation ancient Egypt passes their culture; earlier generation draws their life on rough surfaces (such as rocks and caves), whilst the next generation studies and applies culture from it.

Culture is also learned through many forms of symbols. Ever saw this picture on the right? That is how ancient Egypt passes their culture; earlier generation draws their life on the rock, whilst the next generation studies and applies culture from it. Culture is also learned through direct instruction and observation; it is absorbed both consciously and unconsciously. Like a mother teaching her married daughter about marriage rules, or a foreign man observing language spoken by a strange society.

There are three forms of culture:

• International Culture refers to practices which are common to an identifiable group extending beyong the boundaries of one culture. 
• National Culture refers to the experiences, beliefs, learned behavior patterns, and values shared by citizens of the same nation. 
• Subculture is identifiable cultural pattern existing within larger cultures.

Culture and Globalization

Globalization is defined as the process where people across the world increasingly interlinked and become mutually dependent towards each other. It is brought to the world’s face through economic and political aspect. Globalization allows people from different cultures to bring their cultures up and blend it one another. As the process of globalization takes place in many regions, this process later results in fading of the original culture and gives birth to new culture as a replacement.

Information gathered from many sources:

• Bina Nusantara Presentation "Human Diversities 1" slides 72-98
• Lechte, John. Key Contemporary Concept. SAGE Publications London, 2003. ISBN 0 7619 6534 3.

Image Sources: 

• gudegkeprabon.wordpress.com
• www.ancientscripts.com
• www.realmagick.com
• www.deviantart.com
• www.putraindonesiamalang.or.id
• pinsalabim.blogspot.com
• ayoberbagi.com
• news.bbc.co.uk

Language as a means of Communication

Language, as we all know, is the primary means of communication for human. Language is used to communicate messages between one to another, with some ways to represent meanings.

Chair

Language is based on arbitrary; it learns the associations between words and the things they represent. For example, we know that the word 'chair' represents an object that commonly has four cantilevers, one board on top, usually comes with a backrest, and is used for people to sit (as we can see on the right). Beside spoken and written languages, human also has the ability to communicate with non-verbal communications, such as sign language and body language.

Sign Language

Sign language is usually used by humans who aren't able to communicate with spoken languages. The language they use is based on ASL (American Sign Language) it is the signs produced by hand, with each form representing one word. The picture of forms of sign language is shown on the left.

While body language is where a person may reveal clues as to some unspoken intention or feeling through their physical behavior.  Forms of body language are posture, head motion, facial expression, gesture, and eye contact.

Language is also part of acculturation as it is transmitted through learning. Let's go long way back to the primates era; where all there was for them to communicate is in form of a limited number of sounds that are produced in response to specific stimuli. It is named as the 'call system', the system primates back then used to communicate with each other. One of the primates who uses this method is the apes (such as Congo chimpanzees). This system is used because primates' vocal tract is not suitable for speech. They didn't have the linguistic capacity of communicating about the past and future (in addition to present), as we humans do. The call system has three main differences with human language, aside from the sound produced. They are:

• Call system is stimuli dependent, meaning that it can only send messages to signs of specific stimuli (such as food and danger) -- different from human who has the capacity to speak of things and events that are not present (displacement)
• Call system consists of limited number of sound that cannot be combined to produce new calls -- unlike human who can possess the capacity to generate new expressions by combining with other expressions (productivity).  
• Call system has little to no variation between between communities of the same species for each call -- while in human each linguistic community has their own language. 

From call system, language than emerges from only few specific meanings to various wider and deeper meanings as the language we all now know.

Language also has structures. It has four main structures, those are:

• Phonology - study of sound used in speech
• Morphology - studies the forms in which sounds are grouped in speech
• Lexicon - dictionary containing all of the smallest units of speech that have a meaning (morpheme)
• Syntax - rules that order words and phrases into sentences

It is mentioned above about distinction of languages across linguistic communities, that we can also say as 'linguistic diversity'. In Indonesia, we have more than seven hundred spoken languages, all different languages are spoken in different dialects and lexicon (words) -- this is one of the examples of linguistic diversity. To respond to this language difference, human is able to do style shifting; to change the way they talk depending upon the social requirements of a given setting. Just like travelers who could speak many languages depending on what country he is in. This is also the main reason why the English language is set to be an international language, to ease people to communicate abroad. But this action is opposed with linguistic relativity theory that states no language is superior to any other as a means of communication.

In Southern English, there had been an invention of American-English dialect called Black English Vernacular. BEV has its own complex system of linguistic rules, it is not an unstructured selection of words and phrases. The speakers of BEV do not pronounce intervocalic r's, and also delete use copula to eliminate the verb. Some examples of BEV dialects are changing the words "where are you at?" and "who are you?" to "where you at?" and "who you?".

Another culturally central lexical elaboration that corresponds to a meaning is called focal vocabulary. This is the word that represents a meaning but is only used by several to one small specific linguistic community. It is argued that the change is more likely to move from culture to language, rather than reverse. For example, the use of word 'sin bin' and 'twig' in hockey teams which represents the meaning 'penalty box' and 'hockey stick'.

The last theory discussed in here is about gender speech contrast. In most countries across the world, there are regular differences between men's and women's speech that cut across subcultural boundaries. Men in their speech is proven to be more masculine, aggressive, tough, daring, and dominant. In other side, women's speech tends to be more feminine, soft, emotional, sweet, and submissive. It is also said that in a conversation, men tends to ignore what women says, cut down women's talk, and is dominant in the interaction. In America and England, these facts is attributed to women's lack of socioeconomic power. This is rooted back when politics and economics emerge, women tends to be untrusted to do the job as a ruler while men, in other side, is the one who holds the control.

Source:

• Bina Nusantara Presentation "Human Diversities 1" slides 4 - 32.

Etnography & Survey Research in Anthropology

In this post the writer is going to discuss the main differences between ethnography and survey research in anthropology.

Ethnography

Ethnography is the method of qualitative research. The intention of Ethnography is to provide a detailed, in-depth information of everyday life. The data produced uses less statistical/numeric data because the investigated participants tends  The method of this research is observation, requiring the ethnographer to have dual role: as a participant in the community and as an observer. Ethnographers can observe based on the following methods:

• Covert observational research - The researchers do not identify themselves, Either they mix in with the subjects undetected, or they observe from a distance. Adventage: The subjects’ behavior will not be contaminated by the presence of the researcher. 
• Overt observational research - The researchers identify themselves as researchers and explain the purpose of their observations. The problem with this approach is subjects may modify their behavior when they know they are being watched. They portray their “ideal self” rather than their true self.

It is usually conducted in the communities that do not read or write, because there would be difficulties to apply the method of survey research to this community (e.g. questionnaire). This method goes beyond reporting an event, it also represent the "webs of meaning" (Clifford Geertz). It also represents the "insider's point of view", allowing the information to emerge from the ethnographic encounter rather than imposing there from existing models

Survey Research

Survey research is the method of quantitative research. This method studies the community as a whole, taking a great number of respondents in the research. The method begins to apply when modern community starts to evolve, where the trait is literate people who is able to read and write; allowing them to complete survey research's methods. This method requires less representative participants as sample from the community, but relies heavily to numerical/statistical data (in order to represent larger, wider and diverse community). Differs from ethnography, survey research is often conducted with little or no personal contact at all with participants. The method of this research is listed below:

• Mail surveys - sent to a preselected sample of people, with instructions on how to fill out the survey and return it enclosed.
• Personal interviews - conducted by an associate of the researcher or the actual researcher. These usually take place either at a research facility, their home, or a neutral, public place.
• Telephone Interviews - reduces both cost and time from doing them in person, and means a wider population can be reached for sampling, including people far from the research base and people who work during the day.
• Internet Surveys - it’s easy and cheap to get many responses from a wide variety of demographic, and it’s also easy to poll people that fit a certain profile.

Information gathered from many sources:

• "What is Ethnography?" at http://www.brianhoey.com/General%20Site/general_defn-ethnography.htm (quoted at March 18th 2014)
• "Observational Techniques" at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_techniques (quoted at March 18th 2014)
• Bina Nusantara PPT "Human Realities", slide 116-117
• "Survey Research" at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survey_research#Methods (quoted at March 18th 2014)

Psychology, Anthropology, and Philosophy.

In this post, the writer will discuss about the basic/general definition and understanding about Psychology, Anthropology, and Philosophy.

Psychology

According to the book A Student's Guide to Studying Psychology by Thomas M. Heffernan, Psychology is described as "the study of people" or "the study of the mind". It is also said in the book that psychology study both human and animal, but in the later time it is stated that the main purpose of psychology is "the scientific study of behavior and mental processes" (King 38).

What is meant by the term 'behavior' is everything that human do that can be directly observed. The examples are a baby crying, or a person shouting angrily. These actions are called behavior and can be seen with bare eyes, or without scientific process.

Whether the term 'mental process' is the thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of individuals experiences privately and cannot be observed directly. In here we can find the cognitive process and the feelings that one has. For example, what does the crying baby feels when the mother leaves the room, or the angry feeling a person experience when his motorcycle is robbed.

The perspectives in Psychology are:

• Psychoanalytic perspective
• Biological perspective
• Developmental perspective
• Humanistic perspective
• Behaviorism
• Cognitive perspective
• Social psychology

Anthropology

The word Anthropology comes from two Greek words: "anthropos" that stands for human and "logia" that stands for study. Anthropology itself studies the human diversity from around the world, and how they are linked with the different cultures.

The sub-divisions of Anthropology are:

• Sociocultural anthropology – the study of present-day cultures around the world
• Linguistic anthropology – the study of communication practices in present-day cultures around the world
• Archeology – learning about earlier cultures by examining the artifacts that they left behind
• Physical anthropology – learning about humans' biological aspects by examining their skeletal and other physical remains; it includes research on human evolution as well as forensic studies

Philosophy
The word 'philosophy' literally means "love of wisdom". Philosophy as an academic discipline itself is the study of the whole phenomenon of human life and thinking critically, and described in the basic concept. Those who study philosophy are perpetually engaged in asking, answering, and arguing for their answers to life’s most basic questions.
Philosophy seek to understand the following questions:

• Is there a God?
• What is truth?
• What is a person? What makes a person the same through time?
• Is the world strictly composed of matter?
• Do people have minds? If so, how is the mind related to the body?
• Do people have free wills?
• What is it for one event to cause another?

Information gathered from many sources:

• King,  Laura. The Science of Psychology: An Appreciative View, 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2011. VitalBook file. ISBN 978-0-07-659377-4
• Heffernan, Thomas M. A Student's Guide to Studying Psychology, 3rd Edition. Psychology Press, 2005. ISBN 1-84169-394-4.
• "What is Anthropology?" in http://www.bu.edu/anthrop/about/what-is-anthropology/ (quoted at March 16th 2014)
• "What is Anthropology?" in https://anthropology.unt.edu/whatisanthropology.php (quoted at March 16th 2014)
• "What is Philosophy?" in http://philosophy.fsu.edu/Programs/Undergraduate-Program/What-is-Philosophy (quoted at March 16th 2014)
•  "What is Philosophy?" in https://www.york.ac.uk/philosophy/why-philosophy/ (quoted at March 16th 2014)